CHEMISTRY

What Is Chemistry?

By Mary Bagley, Live Science Contributor   |   May 30, 2014 01:18am ET

 

 

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Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, how and why substances combine or separate to form other substances, and how substances interact with energy. Many people think of chemists as being white-coated scientists mixing strange liquids in a laboratory, but the truth is we are all chemists.
Doctors, nurses and veterinarians must study chemistry, but understanding basic chemistry concepts is important for almost every profession. Chemistry is part of everything in our lives.
Every material in existence is made up of matter — even our own bodies. Chemistry is involved in everything we do, from growing and cooking food to cleaning our homes and bodies to launching a space shuttle. Chemistry is one of the physical sciences that help us to describe and explain our world.

Five branches

There are five main branches of chemistry, each of which has many areas of study.
Analytical chemistry uses qualitative and quantitative observation to identify and measure the physical and chemical properties of substances. In a sense, all chemistry is analytical.
Physical chemistry combines chemistry with physics. Physical chemists study how matter and energy interact. Thermodynamics and quantum mechanics are two of the important branches of physical chemistry.
Organic chemistry specifically studies compounds that contain the element carbon. Carbon has many unique properties that allow it to form complex chemical bonds and very large molecules. Organic chemistry is known as the “Chemistry of Life” because all of the molecules that make up living tissue have carbon as part of their makeup.
Inorganic chemistry studies materials such as metals and gases that do not have carbon as part of their makeup.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur within living organisms.

Fields of study

Within these broad categories are countless fields of study, many of which have important effects on our daily life. Chemists improve many products, from the food we eat and the clothing we wear to the materials with which we build our homes. Chemistry helps to protect our environment and searches for new sources of energy.

Food chemistry

Food science deals with the three biological components of food — carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Carbohydrates are sugars and starches, the chemical fuels needed for our cells to function. Lipids are fats and oils and are essential parts of cell membranes and to lubricate and cushion organs within the body. Because fats have 2.25 times the energy per gram than either carbohydrates or proteins, many people try to limit their intake to avoid becoming overweight. Proteins are complex molecules composed of from 100 to 500 or more amino acids that are chained together and folded into three-dimensional shapes necessary for the structure and function of every cell. Our bodies can synthesize some of the amino acids; however eight of them, the essential amino acids, must be taken in as part of our food. Food scientists are also concerned with the inorganic components of food such as its water content, minerals, vitamins and enzymes.
Food chemists improve the quality, safety, storage and taste of our food. Food chemists may work for private industry to develop new products or improve processing. They may also work for government agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration to inspect food products and handlers to protect us from contamination or harmful practices. Food chemists test products to supply information used for the nutrition labels or to determine how packaging and storage affects the safety and quality of the food. Flavorists work with chemicals to change the taste of food. Chemists may also work on other ways to improve sensory appeal, such as enhancing color, odor or texture.

Environmental chemistry

Environmental chemists study how chemicals interact with the natural environment. Environmental chemistry is an interdisciplinary study that involves both analytical chemistry and an understanding of environmental science. Environmental chemists must first understand the chemicals and chemical reactions present in natural processes in the soil water and air. Sampling and analysis can then determine if human activities have contaminated the environment or caused harmful reactions to affect it.
Water quality is an important area of environmental chemistry. “Pure” water does not exist in nature; it always has some minerals or other substance dissolved in it. Water quality chemists test rivers, lakes and ocean water for characteristics such as dissolved oxygen, salinity, turbidity, suspended sediments, and pH. Water destined for human consumption must be free of harmful contaminants and may be treated with additives like fluoride and chlorine to increase its safety.

Agricultural chemistry

Agricultural chemistry is concerned with the substances and chemical reactions that are involved with the production, protection and use of crops and livestock. It is a highly interdisciplinary field that relies on ties to many other sciences. Agricultural chemists may work with the Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Food and Drug Administration or for private industry. Agricultural chemists develop fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides necessary for large-scale crop production. They must also monitor how these products are used and their impacts on the environment. Nutritional supplements are developed to increase the productivity of meat and dairy herds.
Agricultural biotechnology is a fast-growing focus for many agricultural chemists. Genetically manipulating crops to be resistant to the herbicides used to control weeds in the fields requires detailed understanding of both the plants and the chemicals at the molecular level. Biochemists must understand genetics, chemistry and business needs to develop crops that are easier to transport or that have a longer shelf life.

Chemical engineering

Chemical engineers research and develop new materials or processes that involve chemical reactions. Chemical engineering combines a background in chemistry with engineering and economics concepts to solve technological problems. Chemical engineering jobs fall into two main groups: industrial applications and development of new products.
Industries require chemical engineers to devise new ways to make the manufacturing of their products easier and more cost effective. Chemical engineers are involved in designing and operating processing plants, develop safety procedures for handling dangerous materials, and supervise the manufacture of nearly every product we use. Chemical engineers work to develop new products and processes in every field from pharmaceuticals to fuels and computer components.

Geochemistry

Geochemists combine chemistry and geology to study the makeup and interaction between substances found in the Earth. Geochemists may spend more time in field studies than other types of chemists. Many work for the U.S. Geological Survey or the Environmental Protection Agency in determining how mining operations and waste can affect water quality and the environment. They may travel to remote abandoned mines to collect samples and perform rough field evaluations, and then follow a stream through its watershed to evaluate how contaminants are moving through the system. Petroleum geochemists are employed by oil and gas companies to help find new energy reserves. They may also work on pipelines and oil rigs to prevent chemical reactions that could cause explosions or spills.
Further reading:

• American Chemical Society

Editor's Recommendations

• What is Biology?
• Nobel Prize in Chemistry: 1901-Present

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Food Corporation of India

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Food Corporation of India
भारतीय खाद्य निगम

Type	Government-owned corporation
Industry	PSU
Founded	1964
Founder	Govt of India
Headquarters	New Delhi, India
Area served	All India
Key people	Shri C. Viswanath (wef 28/5/2013 A/N) (I.A.S), Chairman & MD
Products	Mainly Wheat & Rice
Services	Govt Policy Execution
Number of employees	Sanctioned:- 36515 In position:- 26716 (as on 31/3/2013)
Website	http://www.fciweb.nic.in/
Footnotes / references It pay through IDA pattren not in CDA

Food Corporation of India (Hindi: भारतीय खाद्य निगम) was set up on 14 January 1965 having its first District Office at Thanjavur - rice bowl of Tamil Nadu - and headquarters at Chennai under the Food Corporations Act 1964 to implement the following objectives of the National Food Policy :

1. Effective price support operations for safeguarding the interests of the farmers
2. Distribution of foodgrains throughout the country for Public Distribution System
3. Maintaining satisfactory level of operational and buffer stocks of foodgrains to ensure National Food Security
4. Regulate market price to provide foodgrains to consumers at a reliable price

Contents

• 1 Statistics
• 2 Organizational Structure
• 3 Human Resources
• 4 Operations
• 5 References
• 6 External links

Statistics

It is one amongst the largest corporations in India and doubtless the largest supply chain management in Asia (Second in world ).^[1] It operates through 5 zonal offices and 24 regional offices. Each year, the Food Corporation of India purchases roughly 15 to 20 per cent of India's wheat output and 12 to 15 per cent of its rice output. The purchases are made from the farmers at the rates declared by the Govt. of India. This rate is called as MSP (Minimum Support Price). There is no limit for procurement in terms of volume, any quantity can be procured by FCI(Food Corporation of India) provided the stock satisfies FAQ (Fair Average Quality) specifications with respect to FCI.

Organizational Structure

Food Corporation of India operates through it Field Offices/District Offices which are headed by an Assistant General Manager, designated as Area Manager.Under his control there are Managers to deal with each and every section viz.,sales, contracts, movement,establishment,quality control,operational Accounts etc., who consolidate the field level operations and through the Area Managers authorization, they transmit the necessary information and periodical statements to Regional offices of their respective regions.Regional Offices are headed by a General Manager who is in most of the cases from Indian Administrative Service/All India Services under deputation. Under his control Deputy General Managers who are FCI's officers coordinate with daily operations through the Assistant General Managers who were posted in various sections to oversee the functions of District offices units of their particular section. All these Officers appraise the General Manager periodically on various issues pertaining to district offices of that particular region. FCI had 5 zones i.e. North, South, East, West & North-East.^[2] All the Regional Offices are under the control of Zonal Offices which are headed by an Executive Director who is in most of the cases from Indian Administrative Service/All India Services under deputation. Under his control three or more than three General Managers coordinate with all regional Offices of their particular zone through subordinate officers like Deputy General managers and Assistant General Managers dealing with their allotted operational sections in their zone. All the Zonal Offices are under the control of Head Quarters, New Delhi which is headed by Chairman & Managing Director who is an Indian Administrative Officer of Secretary Rank on Central Deputation.Head Quarters instruct, communicate, consolidate and refine the voluminous information required for the streamlined execution of day to day operations and coordinates with Ministry of Food, Consumer Affairs and Public Distribution and Food Secretary and various sister corporations like Central Warehousing Corporation, Indian Railways in formulating food policy or amending the existing policy to suit the emerging challenges in managing Food Security scenario of the nation.

Human Resources

Food Corporation of India has Following categories of Employees : 1. Category-I -Designation - Assistant General Manager, Deputy General Manager, General Manager. 2. Category-II -Designation - Manager 3. Category-III - Assistant Grade-I,Assistant Grade-II,Assistant Grade-III 4. Category-IV - Dusting operator & Picker etc.

Operations

The stocks are transported throughout India and issued to the State Government nominees at the rates declared by the Govt of India for further distribution under the Public Distribution System (PDS) for the consumption of the ration card holders. (FCI itself does not directly distribute any stock under PDS and its operations end at the exit of the stock from its depots). The difference between the purchase price and sale price, along with internal costs, are reimbursed by the Union Government in the form of Food Subsidy. At present the annual subsidy is around $10 billion. FCI by itself is not a Decision making authority, it does not decide anything about the MSP, Imports or Exports. It just implements the decisions made by the Ministry of Food and Ministry of Agriculture.

References

1. 
   

GovernmentJobs, 2015 (July 11, 2015). "FCI".

2. "FCI Admit card". www.MeriView.in.

External links

• Official Website of FCI
• Ministry of Consumer Affairs & Public Distribution
• Annual Reports 2003-04 to 2007-08

[hide] v t e Central public sector companies of India Air India Balmer Lawrie Bank of India Bharat Electronics Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited Bharat Petroleum Bharat Sanchar Nigam BHAVINI Cement Corporation of India Coal India Limited Dredging Corporation of India Limited Electronics Corporation of India Limited Food Corporation of India GAIL Hindustan Aeronautics Limited HMT Limited Indian Oil Corporation Indian Rare Earths Limited Life Insurance Corporation of India Mazagon Dock Limited MECON Limited Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited NTPC Limited Nuclear Power Corporation of India Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Power Grid Corporation of India Praga Tools Limited Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Rural Electrification Corporation Limited State Bank of India Steel Authority of India Limited Uranium Corporation of India

Form-16

Understanding Your Form-16

Your Form-16 contains details you need to file your Income Tax Return. Having a basic understanding about your Form-16 goes a long way to help you file your tax return.
See the below annotated image to understand some of the most relevant portions of your Form-16. It is a very brief form packed with information.
After reading this guide, you will be able to understand how the information from the Form-16 is entered in ClearTax.

Weighed down by too much tax rules, deductions and laws?
We’ll spare you the headache and give you access to our short and simple guide to tax planning and filing.

Form-16 Part B / Annexure / Salary Statement

When you fill your I-T Return, you need to enter the following details.

1 Taxable Salary

3 Aggregate of Section 80C Deductions

(Gross & Deductible Amount)

5 Tax Payable or Refund Due

2 Breakup of Section 80C Deductions

4 TDS (Tax Deducted at Source)

Form-16 Part A / Traces Form-16

When you fill your I-T Return, you need to enter the following details.

1 TDS Deducted by Employer

3 PAN of Employer

5 Current Assessment Year

7 Your PAN

2 TAN of Employer

4 Name and Address of Employer

6 Your (Taxpayer's) Name and Address

---

Information your Employer Provides

Taxable Salary

Your employer will provide key information such as Gross Salary, Perquisites, Various allowances and deductibles.
From a tax perspective Field-6, Income Chargeable under the head 'Salaries' is relevant. This is your taxable salary.

Tax Deducted at Source (TDS)

The other relevant information your employer will tell you is Tax deducted at source. This is field-18(a). This tax deducted is what you have paid to the Income Tax Department already.

The Income Tax Department provides Form-26 AS.
This is a Tax Credit Statement. This statement tells you how much Tax was deposited on your behalf with the Income Tax department. It is strongly recommended that you check your Form-26AS before you file your tax return.

---

Information you already have

Deductions

Deductions under Section 80C, 80D, 80E, 80CCF, 80G, 80DD, 80U, etc are reported by you to your Employer.
You may or may not have reported all deductions to your employer. That is no problem. You can still claim them in your Income Tax Return by filling up the relevant columns in ClearTax.
In general, its a good idea to report your tax deductions to your employer to minimize the TDS by employer.

Income other than Salary

If you receive any other Income, like interest from a bank account or rent, etc. You may have informed your employer about it. This is mentioned in Field-7.
Most commonly, people who have a housing loan report it to their employers for less tax deduction at source. Don't worry if you have not reported income to your employer
You can add additional Income to your Income Tax Return in the relevant columns of ClearTax.

---

---

Questions? Contact us anytime!

Frequently

8. Bulldozer

   From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   For other uses, see Bulldozer (disambiguation).

   This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008)

   
   A working bulldozer from the First Tractor Company, on Xinbu Island, Hainan, China.
   A bulldozer is a crawler (continuous tracked tractor) equipped with a substantial metal plate (known as a blade) used to push large quantities of soil, sand, rubble, or other such material during construction or conversion work and typically equipped at the rear with a claw-like device (known as a ripper) to loosen densely compacted materials.
   Bulldozers can be found on a wide range of sites, mines and quarries, military bases, heavy industry factories, engineering projects and farms.
   The term "bulldozer" refers only to a tractor (usually tracked) fitted with a dozer blade.
   

   Contents

   • 1 Description
     • 1.1 Blade
     • 1.2 Ripper
   • 2 Modifications
     • 2.1 Armored bulldozers
   • 3 History
   • 4 Manufacturers
   • 5 History of the word
   • 6 See also
   • 7 References
   • 8 External links

   Description

   
   A Caterpillar D10N bulldozer equipped with a single shank ripper.
   Most often bulldozers are large and powerful tracked heavy equipment. The tracks give them excellent ground holding capability and mobility through very rough terrain. Wide tracks help distribute the bulldozer's weight over a large area (decreasing ground pressure), thus preventing it from sinking in sandy or muddy ground. Extra wide tracks are known as swamp tracks or LGP (low ground pressure) tracks. Bulldozers have transmission systems designed to take advantage of the track system and provide excellent tractive force.
   Because of these attributes, bulldozers are often used in road building, construction, mining, forestry, land clearing, infrastructure development, and any other projects requiring highly mobile, powerful, and stable earth-moving equipment.
   Another type of bulldozer is the wheeled bulldozer, which generally has four wheels driven by a 4-wheel-drive system and has a hydraulic, articulated steering system. The blade is mounted forward of the articulation joint, and is hydraulically actuated.
   The bulldozer's primary tools are the blade and the ripper.
   

   Blade

   
   Bulldozer blade
   The bulldozer blade is a heavy metal plate on the front of the tractor, used to push objects, and shove sand, soil and debris. Dozer blades usually come in three varieties:
   
   1. A straight blade ("S blade") which is short and has no lateral curve and no side wings and can be used for fine grading.
   2. A universal blade ("U blade") which is tall and very curved, and has large side wings to carry more material.
   3. An "S-U" combination blade which is shorter, has less curvature, and smaller side wings. This blade is typically used for pushing piles of large rocks, such as at a quarry.
   Blades can be fitted straight across the frame, or at an angle, sometimes using additional 'tilt cylinders' to vary the angle while moving. The bottom edge of the blade can be sharpened, e.g. to cut tree stumps.
   Sometimes a bulldozer is used to push another piece of earth moving equipment known as a "scraper". The towed Fresno Scraper, invented in 1883 by James Porteous, was the first design to enable this to be done economically, removing the soil from the cut and depositing it elsewhere on shallow ground (fill). Many dozer blades have a reinforced center section with this purpose in mind, and are called "bull blades".
   In military use, dozer blades are fixed on combat engineering vehicles and can optionally be fitted on other vehicles, such as artillery tractors such as the Type 73 or M8 Tractor. Dozer blades can also be mounted on main battle tanks, where it can be used to clear antitank obstacles, mines, and dig improvised shelters. Combat applications for dozer blades include clearing battlefield obstacles and preparing fire positions.^[1]
   

   Ripper

   
   Multi-shank ripper
   The ripper is the long claw-like device on the back of the bulldozer. Rippers can come as a single (single shank/giant ripper) or in groups of two or more (multi shank rippers). Usually, a single shank is preferred for heavy ripping. The ripper shank is fitted with a replaceable tungsten steel alloy tip. Ripping rock breaks the ground surface rock or pavement into small rubble easy to handle and transport, which can then be removed so grading can take place. With agricultural ripping, a farmer breaks up rocky or very hard earth (such as podzol hardpan), which is otherwise unploughable, in order to farm it. For example, much of the best land in the California wine country consists of old lava flows. The grower shatters the lava with heavy bulldozers so surface crops or trees can be planted. A less common rear attachment is a stumpbuster, which is a single spike that protrudes horizontally and can be raised to get it (mostly) out of the way. A stumpbuster is used to split a tree stump. A bulldozer with a stumpbuster is used for landclearing operations, and probably has a brush-rake blade.
   

   Modifications

   
   A tracked loader
   Bulldozers have been further modified over time to evolve into new machines which can work in ways that the original bulldozer cannot.
   One example is that loader tractors were created by removing the blade and substituting a large volume bucket and hydraulic arms which can raise and lower the bucket, thus making it useful for scooping up earth and loading it into trucks, these are often known as a Drott.
   Other modifications to the original bulldozer include making it smaller to let it operate in small work areas where movement is limited, such as in mining. A very small bulldozer is sometimes called a calfdozer.
   Some lightweight form of bulldozer are commonly used in snow removal and as a tool for preparing winter sports areas for ski and snowboard sports.
   In an angledozer (image here) the blade can be pushed forward at one end to make it easier to push material away to the side.
   Nevertheless, the original earthmoving bulldozers are still irreplaceable as their tasks are concentrated in deforestation, earthmoving, ground levelling, and road carving. Heavy bulldozers are mainly employed to level the terrain to prepare it for construction. The construction, however, is mainly done by small bulldozers and loader tractors.
   

   Armored bulldozers

   Main article: Armored bulldozers
   
   An armored Caterpillar D9R Bulldozer used by Israel Defense Forces
   Some bulldozers, especially bulldozers in military usage, have been fitted with armor to protect the driver from enemy fire, enabling the bulldozer to operate in battle zones. The best-known use of an armored bulldozer is probably the use by the Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) of the IDF Caterpillar D9, for earth moving, clearing terrain obstacles, opening routes, detonating explosive charges, and demolishing Palestinian homes. The extensive use of armored bulldozers during the Second Intifada drew controversy and criticism from human rights organizations while military experts saw it as a key factor in reducing IDF casualties.
   Some bulldozers have been fitted with armor by non-government civilian operators to prevent bystanders or police from interfering with the work performed by the bulldozer, as in the case of strikes or demolition of condemned buildings. This has also been done by civilians with a dispute with the authorities, such as Marvin Heemeyer, who outfitted his Komatsu D355A bulldozer with homemade composite armor to then demolish government buildings.
   

   History

   
   A Liebherr bulldozer with a multi-shank ripper.
   
   Bulldozer for solid waste management.
   The first bulldozers were adapted from Holt farm tractors that were used to plow fields. The versatility of tractors in soft ground for logging and road building contributed to the development of the armoured tank in World War I.
   In 1923, a young farmer named James Cummings and a draftsman named J. Earl McLeod made the first designs for the bulldozer. A replica is on display at the city park in Morrowville, Kansas where the two built the first bulldozer.^[2] On December 18, 1923, Cummings and McLeod filed U.S. patent #1,522,378 that was later issued on January 6, 1925 for an "Attachment for Tractors."^[3]
   By the 1920s, tracked vehicles became common, particularly the Caterpillar 60. Rubber-tired vehicles came into use in the 1940s. To dig canals, raise earth dams, and do other earth-moving jobs, these tractors were equipped with a large thick metal plate in front. (The blade got its curved shape later). In some early models the driver sat on top in the open without a cabin. There are three main types of bulldozer blades: a U-blade for pushing and carrying dirt relatively long distances, a straight blade for "knocking down" and spreading piles of dirt, and a brush rake for removing brush and roots. These attachments (home-built or built by small equipment manufacturers of attachments for wheeled and crawler tractors and trucks) appeared by 1929.
   Widespread acceptance of the bull-grader does not seem to appear before the mid-1930s. The addition of power down-force provided by hydraulic cylinders instead of just the weight of the blade made them the preferred excavation machine for large and small contractors alike by the 1940s, by which time the term "bulldozer" referred to the entire machine and not just the attachment.
   Over the years, bulldozers got bigger and more powerful in response to the demand for equipment suited for ever larger earthworks. Firms like Caterpillar, Komatsu, Case, Euclid,^[4] Allis Chalmers, Liebherr, LiuGong, Terex, Fiat-Allis, John Deere, BEML, XGMA and International Harvester manufactured large tracked-type earthmoving machines. R.G. LeTourneau and Caterpillar manufactured large rubber tired bulldozers.^[5]
   Bulldozers grew more sophisticated as time passed. Improvements include drivetrains analogous to (in automobiles) an automatic transmission instead of a manual transmission such as the early Euclid C-6 and TC-12 or Model C Tournadozer, blade movement controlled by hydraulic cylinders or electric motors instead of early models' cable winch/brake, and automatic grade control. Hydraulic cylinders enabled the application of down force, more precise manipulation of the blade and automated controls.
   A more recent innovation is the outfitting of bulldozers with GPS technology, such as manufactured by Topcon Positioning Systems, Inc., Trimble Inc, or Leica Geosystems for precise grade control and (potentially) "stakeless" construction. As a response to the many, -and often varying claims about these systems, The Kellogg Report^[6] published in 2010 a detailed comparison of all the manufacturers' systems, evaluating more than 200 features for dozers alone.
   The best-known maker of bulldozers is probably Caterpillar in the US, which earned its reputation by making tough, durable, reliable machines. Komatsu, Liebherr, Case and John Deere are present-day competitors. Although these machines began as modified farm tractors, they became the mainstay for big civil construction projects, and found their way into use by military construction units worldwide. The best-known model, the Caterpillar D9, was also used to clear mines and demolish enemy structures.
   

   Manufacturers

   Industry statistics based on 2010 production published by Off-Highway Research showed Shantui was the largest producer of bulldozers, making over 10,000 units that year or 2 in 5 crawler-type dozers made in the world.^[7] The next largest producer by number of units is Caterpillar Inc., which produced 6,400 units.^[7]
   

   History of the word

   • 19th century: term used in engineering for a horizontal forging press.
   • Around 1880: In the USA, a "bull-dose" was a large dose (namely, one large enough to be literally or figuratively effective against a bull) of any sort of medicine or punishment. 'Bull-dosing' meant a severe whipping or coercion, or other intimidation such as at gunpoint.^[8]
   • 1886: "bulldozer" meant a large-caliber pistol and the person who wielded it.^[8]
   • Late 19th century: "bulldozing" meant using brute force to push over or through any obstacle.^[8]
   • 1930s: applied to the vehicle.
   These appeared as early as 1929, but were known as "bull grader" blades, and the term "bulldozer blade" did not appear to come into widespread use until the mid-1930s. "Bulldozer" now refers to the whole machine not just the attachment. In contemporary usage, "bulldozer" is often shortened to "dozer".
   

   See also

   • Athanas for the 'bulldozer shrimp' (from the way it pushes sand about)
   • Marvin Heemeyer, known for his rampage with a modified bulldozer.

   References

   1. 
      
9. Trewhitt, Philip (1999). Armoured Fighting Vehicles. Dempsey-Parr. ISBN 1-84084-328-4.
10. 
    
11. Kansas Curiosities: Quirky Characters, Roadside Oddities & Other Offbeat Stuff. Retrieved 2012-04-01.
12. 
    
13. Patent 1522378, Attachment For Tractors, John E McLeod and James D Cummings, Filed December 18, 1923.
14. 
    
15. Haddock, Keith. "Euclid-General Motors' Crawler Tractor". PEI Tractor Club. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
16. 
    
17. "Tournadozer Built for Speedy Earthmoving". Construction Equipment. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
18. 
    
19. The Kellogg Report LLC (2010). Article: The Kellogg Report. Retrieved December 15, 2010 from kelloggreport.com
20. 
    
21. "Shantui officially largest dozer producer in the world". The Earthmover & Civil Contractor. May 2011.
22. 
    
"History of the Bulldozer". Retrieved 2008-12-17.

About Share Market

UNDERSTANDING THE STOCK
MARKET


Section I

Investing In Common Stocks

BS00558A

CORPORATIONS


.A corporation is a company that is a
separate legal entity owned by
stockholders. In other words, the
corporation functions like a single person
separate from its owners (stockholders).
Thus, the stockholders have limited
liability, (the investment
in the stock they own).


j0090040

COMMON STOCK


.Common stock represents ownership in a
corporation. When you buy common stock, you
are buying the corporation's factories,
buildings, and products. Common stock is sold
in shares. Each share of common stock
represents the basic unit of ownership of the
corporation.


BD05159_

STOCK OWNERSHIP


.Stock is like a Pizza,
each share of stock
represents an equal
piece of the pie
(company).


Shares
MAKING MONEY TWO WAYS


.Price appreciationoccurs when you
sell your stock for
more than you paid
for the stock.


.Dividends are
the portion of a
corporation’s
profit that is
paid to
shareholders.


C:\Documents and Settings\ellisow\My Documents\My Pictures\Microsoft Clip Organizer\j0439830.png

PRICE APPRECIATION


As the company grows, your
piece of the pie grows as well.
If the company is successful and
grows by 25%, the value of your
shares will grow as well.

http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:hXmfjhTSJqIphM:http://blog.talisadvisors.com/Portals/85909/images//3d_pie_chart.jpg

MORE ON DIVIDENDS


.Dividendsare paid out of a
corporation's profit after taxes have
been paid. The corporation can,
however, retain part of the profit
and reinvest it in the corporation.
This portion is known as retained
earnings and it is frequently used
for research and development or
expansion. A corporation doesn't
have to pay dividends.


C:\Documents and Settings\ellisow\My Documents\My Pictures\Microsoft Clip Organizer\j0341974.jpg

MORE ON DIVIDENDS
CONTINUED


.Dividendsdo not even have to be paid with
money. The board of directors can elect to
issue stock dividends. When this is done,
the current stockholders would receive more
shares of the corporation's stock rather than
cash.


C:\Documents and Settings\ellisow\My Documents\My Pictures\Microsoft Clip Organizer\j0313922.jpg

CAPITAL GAINS AND LOSSES


.When investors
sell stocks for
more than they
paid, the profit
made from the
sale is the
investor's
capital gain.


.When a stock
sells for less
than the
investor paid for
it, the investor
suffers a capital
loss.


PE02505_

EQUITY AND RISK CAPITAL


.The money an investor uses to buy
stocks is called equity capital. Because
you can make or lose money through
investments, you must determine the
amount of money that you can afford to
lose without harming your standard of
living. The amount of money an investor
can afford to lose is called risk capital,
and that is the amount that should be
invested. Remember, invest only what
you can afford to lose.


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TYPES OF CORPORATIONS


.Corporations may be classified in many ways.
If stock is available for purchase by the
public, it is an open corporation. The
corporation is required by law to disclose its
financial condition.Most large corporations
are open corporations.


.A closed corporationis one whose stock is
not available to outsiders, it does not issue
stock to the public and is not required to
disclose publicly its financial condition.


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AUTHORIZED STOCK


.All corporations must issue stock. The state
issuing the Articles of Incorporation authorizes
the number of shares a corporation can issue.
That number represents all the shares a
corporation can issue without going back to the
state and requesting that the state allow more
shares to be issued.


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ISSUED STOCK


.These are the shares of stock that the
company has sold (issued). The issued shares
represent ownership. Authorized but not
issued are held for future sales to raise funds
(capital) for future growth.


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SO YOU WANT TO GO PUBLIC


.When a company wants to go public, or to be
traded on stock exchanges, it must meet some
strict standards.
.The New York Stock Exchange (you don’t start here)
.A pre-tax income of $2.5 million for the previous
year or $2.0 million a year for two previous years
.Net tangible assets of $18 million
.Two thousand shareholders who each have 100 or
more shares
.At least 1.1 million publicly held shares
.Outstanding shares with a value of $18 million




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THE ANNUAL REPORT


.An annual reportis a financial report
issued to stockholders at the end of
each operating year. An annual report
will present the financial condition of
the corporation, the names of the board
of directors, the location and date of
the next stockholder's annual meeting,
an auditor's report verifying the
authenticity of the financial data, and
the shareholder's letter.


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BALANCE SHEET
AND I
NCOME
STATEMENT


.The balance sheet lists the corporation's
assets and liabilities. (What they own less
what they owe)
.The income statement lists the revenue
(income), expenses, and profit or loss for the
year. (How much money did they make)
.A stockholder can get a good idea of the
financial condition of a corporation from
analyzing the balance sheet and the income
statement. Some corporations will even
include a five-year financial summary.



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STOCK MARKET
TERMINOLOGY


Section II


SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION


.The Securities and Exchange Commission is a
watchdog agency. It helps to protect the
investor by enforcing federal laws pertaining
to the stock market. The SEC monitors
securities, stock exchanges, corporate
reporting, investment firms, stockbrokers,
and public utility holding companies.


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STAGES OF A STOCK’S LIFE


.Authorized sharesare the shares a
corporation is allowed to issue.
.Issued sharesare the shares actually
issued and sold to investors.
.Shares repurchased by a corporation
are
called treasury shares, or treasury stock.
.Shares purchased by stockholders are
called outstanding shares, shares standing
out in the hands of the public.


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MARKET VALUE VS. BOOK VALUE


.The market valueof a stock is the price
people are willing to pay for the stock at
present. The market value is determined by
the demand for the corporation's stock.
.The book valueof a corporation is equal to
its total assets minus its total liabilities.
(Balance Sheet)


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PRIMARY VS. SECONDARY MARKETS


.When stock is issued to the public
for the first time by a corporation,
it is called a primary distribution.
(IPO) The company is purchased
by an investment bank and they
sell shares to investors.
.After the primary distribution of
stock, all subsequent sales of the
stock take place in secondary
markets (for example, the New
York Stock Exchange or the Over-
the-Counter Market).


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STOCKHOLDERS


.People who buy stocks are stockholders.
When either preferred or common stocks are
purchased, the stockholder receives a stock
certificate.


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BUYING AND
SELLING STOCKS


Section III


STOCK EXCHANGES


.A security exchange, commonly called
a stock exchange, is a nonprofit
organization that provides facilities
for its members to buy and sell
securities.
.The members of a stock exchange are
brokers who buy memberships (called
seats) so that they may use the
exchange. Only members can trade on
the floor of the exchange.


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STOCK EXCHANGES
CONTINUED


.The nation's largest stock exchange is the
New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) located
in New York City. The American Stock
Exchange (AMEX), also located in New
York City, is the nation's second largest
exchange. There are also smaller regional
exchanges, such as the Pacific, Midwest,
Cincinnati, Philadelphia, and Boston
exchanges.
.In addition to exchanges based in the
United States, there are also various
international exchanges, such as those
located in Tokyo, London, Frankfurt,
Zurich, Paris, Milan, Amsterdam,
Stockholm, Brussels, Sydney, Hong Kong,
Singapore, and Toronto.


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STOCK EXCHANGES


.A stock exchange is very similar to
a large swap meet or flea market.
According to legend, it originated
in 1792 when businessmen met
under a buttonwood tree on Wall
Street and signed an agreement
that they would trade stocks. A
company's name was called out and
bids on that company's stock were
exchanged. Eventually the
exchange moved indoors and
became known as the New York
Stock Exchange (also referred to as
the Big Board).


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STOCKBROKERS


.An investor who wishes to buy
stock will most likely place an
order with a stockbroker. A
stockbroker is an agent licensed
by the SEC to buy and sell
securities for clients.
.A stockbroker who works for a
full-service brokerage firm
provides research information,
suggests investment strategies,
and offers advice on market
conditions.


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STOCKBROKERS
CONTINUED


.A stockbroker who passes a very
comprehensive
securities test known as the
"Series 7 Exam" is called a registered
representative.
.A stockbroker receives a commission based
on the total dollar volume of each order. The
commission rate varies with each brokerage
firm.


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DISCOUNT BROKERS


.Discount brokerage firms are an
alternative to paying the full
price commissions
that full-
service brokerage firms charge
investors.
.Discount brokerage firms often
offer no advice or consultation
about investing; they simply
execute a client's orders.


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STOCK ORDERS


Three of the common types
of stock orders are market
orders (spot orders), limit
orders, and stop loss
orders.

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MARKET ORDERS


.A market order is an order to
buy or sell a stock at the best
price possible.
.The broker will execute the
investor's instructions at
whatever price the trade
demands on that day.
.Most orders are market
orders and are carried
out the same day.


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LIMIT ORDER


.A limit order is an order to a
broker to buy or sell shares
at a specific price no
greater than a specific
amount.
.A limit order is not executed
unless the stock market
price reaches the limit the
investor has set.


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STOP LOSS ORDER


.A stop loss order is an
order to a broker to
sell a stock if the
price drops to a
predetermined level.
This limits the
investor's losses or
guarantees a certain
profit.


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TIME IS EVERYTHING


.When an order is placed with a
stockbroker, the investor also
must tell the stockbroker how
long that order should stand.
.A day order tells the stockbroker
to fill the order that day. At the
end of the day, the order is
cancelled.
.A good 'til cancelled (GTC) order
stands until it is filled or until
the investor cancels it.


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ROUND LOTS & ODD
LOTS


.Stock orders are generally
placed in increments
called round lots. A round
lot is a multiple of 100
(100, 200, 300, 400, etc.)
shares.
.An odd lot is a number of
shares that is not a
multiple of 100, such as 50
shares or 322 shares.


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INDICATORS FOR
INVESTORS


Section IV


NYSE INDICATOR


.The Dow Jones Industrial
Average (DJIA), often called
the Dow, is an index of 30
major corporate stocks listed
on the New York Stock
Exchange.


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ANOTHER STOCK MARKET
INDICATOR


.Another major index is
the Standard and Poor's
500 Stock Index. This
index of 500 key stocks
also deals with
corporations listed on
other exchanges and is a
much broader based
index than the Dow Jones
Industrial Average.


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COMPANY RISKS?


.A company risk is a risk that affects
the stock prices of one company or
industry. Demand for a product is a
company risk. If a company's
product or service is in high
demand, the price of its stocks will
generally rise. If a company's
product or service is not in demand,
the price of its stocks will generally
fall.


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SECTION IV
LETS PLAY THE GAME


.Rules
.$50,000.00 to invest
.5 Stock max in a portfolio
.3 trades per week (5 first week to load)
.Stocks must sell for $5.00 or more
.Stocks must be bought in 25 share increments
.$10.00 brokerage fee per trade
.No mathematical mistakes ( if you exceed your
$50,000 limit, your purchase will be canceled
and it will cost you $100.00)




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WHY PLAY THE GAME?


.The group that accumulates the
most profits will get a 10 point
boost to the last nine week’s
grade.
.Second Place will get 5 points to
the last nine weeks.
.Last place gets a deduction of 5
points


(just kidding)

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WHERE DO WE START


.First we go to YAHOO finance and type in a
company name to get its trading symbol.
Everything about the stock comes from this
symbol.


http://finance.yahoo.com/

.Coca-Cola Company (The) Common
.(NYSE: KO)
.The trading symbol for Coke is “KO”



Last Trade:51.78

Trade Time:

12:08PM EDT

Change:

0.22(0.43%)

PrevClose:

51.56

Open:

51.56

Bid:

51.77 x 700

Ask:

51.78 x 400

1y Target Est:

61.80



Common (NYSE: KO)





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Up
Up

Day's Range:

51.40 -51.79

52wk Range:

47.18 -59.45

Volume:

2,448,328

AvgVol(3m):

11,522,600

Market Cap:

119.46B

P/E (ttm):

17.02

EPS (ttm):

3.04

Div & Yield:

1.76 (3.40%



Common (NYSE: KO)


Chart forThe Coca-Cola Company (KO)
6 Month Chart


Chart forThe Coca-Cola Company (KO)
5 Year Chart


Chart forThe Coca-Cola Company (KO)
1 Year ChartCoke to McDonalds
LETS REVIEW


.Where is KO’s stock price in comparison to its 52
week high and low?
.Last Trade: 51.78
.52wk Range:47.18 -59.45






A LITTLE BELOW HALF WAY

.What is the P/E Ratio –this is the current price
divided by its earnings. You should have a P/E
Ratio under 20 if the n/a appears this stock lost
money last quarter.
.EPS:3.04
.P/E: 17.02






THE P/E IS UNDER 20


WHAT’S NEXT?


.Lets look at the analysis’ estimates of where
it should be trading. 1y Target Est:61.80


THE CURRENT STOCK PRICE IS BELOW THE ESTIMATE

.What about the 6 month chart?


Chart forThe Coca-Cola Company (KO)
THE TREND IS TOO CHOPPY TO ESTIMATE A BOUNCE


WOULD YOU BUY THIS STOCK?


.All things point to an increase in Coke Stock
except the 6 month chart. All things
considered this stock should looked at.


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